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	<title>ValueSim</title>
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	<link>http://www.valuesim.no</link>
	<description>Corporate Risk Analysis</description>
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		<title>Markedspris og Regnskaper &#8211; rett verdi?</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=61</link>
		<comments>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=61#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 30 Oct 2009 13:22:20 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>jm</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Problemstillinger rundt verdivurderinger
Dr. Robert Kaplan som er professor ved Harvard University påpeker svakhetene ved tradisjonelt regnskap som ikke gjenspeiler reelle verdier i selskapet. Nobelprisvinneren James Tobin har fått oppkalt måleparametre Tobins Q etter seg. Utgangspunktet her er differansen i verdi mellom bokførte verdier og markedsverdien av selskapet. I mange kunnskapsbaserte virksomheter fremkommer dette tydelig. Immaterielle verdier i et selskap er vanskelig å kvantifisere. Professor Baruch Lev hevder at &#8220;Traditional accounting systems don&#8217;t capture much of what goes on.&#8221; og viser til at markedsverdien av Microsoft 30 september 1999 var priset ...]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Problemstillinger rundt verdivurderinger</strong></p>
<p><a href="http://www.people.hbs.edu/rkaplan/" target="_blank">Dr. Robert Kaplan</a> som er professor ved Harvard University påpeker svakhetene ved tradisjonelt regnskap som ikke gjenspeiler reelle verdier i selskapet. Nobelprisvinneren <a href="http://cowles.econ.yale.edu/faculty/tobin.htm" target="_blank">James Tobin</a> har fått oppkalt måleparametre Tobins Q etter seg. Utgangspunktet her er differansen i verdi mellom bokførte verdier og markedsverdien av selskapet. I mange kunnskapsbaserte virksomheter fremkommer dette tydelig. Immaterielle verdier i et selskap er vanskelig å kvantifisere. Professor <a href="http://www.stern.nyu.edu/~blev/" target="_blank">Baruch Lev</a> hevder at &#8220;Traditional accounting systems don&#8217;t capture much of what goes on.&#8221; og viser til at markedsverdien av Microsoft 30 september 1999 var priset til 28 ganger bokførte verdier.</p>
<p>En utfordring ved verdivurdering er prisingen av immaterielle verdier. Ved et oppkjøp fremkommer gjerne differansen mellom bokførte verdier og kjøpsprisen som goodwill i kjøpers balanse. Verdien av patenter, varemerker og kunnskap om produksjonsprosesser prises sjelden rett i bedriftens balanse, om de i det hele tatt fremkommer. Investeringer til FoU blir i mange bedrifter utgiftsført løpende og fremkommer dermed ikke som en verdi i bedriftens balanse.</p>
<p>Ved verdivurdering av en bedrift søkes det å identifisere fremtidige inntekter som kan genereres gjennom bedriftens ressurser i prognoseperioden. Tillegger man verdiene som reellt finnes i bedriftens aktiva har man et godt utgangspunkt for verdiberegning. Prinsipper som legges til grunn for vurderingen av bedriftens aktiva kan variere. Dermed kan også verdien av bedriften variere som en konsekvens av dette. Det er derfor viktig i en verdivurdering å beskrive hvilke prinsipper som legges til grunn for vurderingen slik at andre kan etterprøve resultatet.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.valuesim.no/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/investment_figure.jpg"><img src="http://web.archive.org/web/20071229093919/http://www.valuesim.no/images/investment_figure.jpg" alt="" /></a></p>
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		<title>Price vs. Value and Market Risk</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=48</link>
		<comments>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=48#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 30 Oct 2009 10:01:01 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>jm</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Having arrived at the probability distribution for the value of equity we are able to calculate expected gain, loss and their probability when investing in a company where the capitalized value (price) is known.
In the figure below we have illustrated the investment and speculative area. The investment area comprice the part of the cumulative probability distribution below 50%.
The speculative area is the area above 50%. The expected value is given at the 50% probability point (stapled line). The literature advices, and successful investors insists, on having a safety margin (discount) ...]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Having arrived at the probability distribution for the value of equity we are able to calculate expected gain, loss and their probability when investing in a company where the capitalized value (price) is known.</p>
<p>In the figure below we have illustrated the investment and speculative area. The investment area comprice the part of the cumulative probability distribution below 50%.</p>
<p>The speculative area is the area above 50%. The expected value is given at the 50% probability point (stapled line). The literature advices, and successful investors insists, on having a safety margin (discount) of at least 20% between expected value (intrinsic value) and the market price, as shown by the yellow area in the figure below. Graham and Dodd in <em>Security Analysis</em> introduced the concept of a margin of safety in 1934.</p>
<p>In a stochastic framework as ours it is better to set the safety margin at one of the percentiles or quartiles giving directly the value of the safety margin. A fixed percentage safety margin will always give a different probability for gain (loss), depending on the shape of the cumulative probability distribution.</p>
<p>An investor having a portfolio of stocks should thus use percentiles as a margin &#8211; having the same probability for gain (loss) throughout the portfolio. In the case below a 20% safety margin coincide with the first quartile, &#8211; giving a 25% probability for loss and 75% probability for gain. The expected value of the company is 1.452 the first quartile is 1.160 giving an exepcted gain of 292 or more with 75% probability (dotted lines).</p>
<p><img src="http://web.archive.org/web/20071229093919/http://www.valuesim.no/images/investment_figure.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="308" /></p>
<p>We know that the total risk of any individual asset is the sum of the systematic and unsystematic risk. When computing the figure above we have used the company’s appropriate beta to account for the systematic risk (in calculating WACC). The unsystematic risk is given by the variance in the figure above.</p>
<p>In a well-diversified portfolio the expected value of the unsystematic return is assumed to be zero. When investing in a single asset we should be looking for assets with a high unsystematic return. In our context companies with a capitalized value below the percentile set as limit of the safety margin.</p>
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		<title>Om å kjøpe 50 øre for 2 kroner</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=20</link>
		<comments>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=20#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 21 Mar 2009 23:13:49 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>jm</dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Det er mange som er opptatt av tap om dagen, men hva er det? Hva er et  urealisert tap. Er pengene i oljefondet tapt?  Her får du noen innspill. ]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><span id="ms__id60" style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Calibri&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Ansatte i oljefondet og andre fond som har tapt penger sier gjerne at neida, de er ikke tapt. De bruker formuleringer som justering av egenkapitalverdien, midlertidig konjunktursvingning, lav-sykel periode osv.. og  selskapet er ikke konkurs, de vil tjene penger igjen osv.. selv finansministeren tar store ord i sin munn, de er ikke tapt, verdien øker på sikt, aksjer gir bedre verdistigning osv… men hva er realitetene?</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> </span></p>
<p>Når du ikke får tilgang på pengene (papirtapet)<span style="color: blue;"> </span>,  kan<span style="color: blue;"> </span>du ikke lenger disponere de fritt. Det er ingen som vil kjøpe aksjene dine, du får ikke realisert de på noe vis. De er bundet i en usikker fremtid. Hva skjer i denne fremtiden, du får ikke utbetalt utbytte (les renter) og ikke får du solgt dem, eller belånt dem om du trenger kontanter.   Når du eventuelt får utbytte, og hvor mye, er høyst usikkert. Og om du får utbytte må man se på følgende, hvor mye betalte du for aksjen når du kjøpte den? Hvor lenge siden er det?</p>
<p>Her er det greit med litt grunnkunnskap. Verdien av en bedrift tar utgangspunkt i bedriftens fremtidige inntjening, denne er som kjent usikker. Bedriften har et antall aksjer som markedet betaler en pris for (les aksjekurs) hvis denne prisen er høyere enn forventingsverdien  dvs. si at du kjøper noe som er verd en krone for  kr  1,50, da reduserer du sannsynligheten for at det noen gang vil bli en lønnsom investering. Realisering av aksjen innebærer at du må finne noen som er villig til å betale mer enn kr  1 ,50<span style="color: blue;"> </span>med tillegg av dine kapitalkostnader i perioden.  Bedriftens evne til å utbetale fremtidig utbytte som gir en bedre rente enn hva du ville fått i banken på  kr 1,50  er også liten.   Du har altså tatt en høy risiko ved å betale høyere pris enn hva forventingsverdien er.</p>
<p>Når så prisen på aksjer faller langt unna forventingsverdien og du må selge aksjen til en lavere pris har du tapt penger. Du har realisert tapet.  Men så sier Kristin Halvorsen vi selger ikke, vi er langsiktige investorer. Pengene er ikke tapt.   Mon tro det, du får ikke noen til å kjøpe aksjen for det du har betalt med tillegg av renter og<span style="color: blue;"> </span>du kan ikke disponere  de pengene det urealiserte tapet utgjør. De er låst i en usikker fremtid.  Hva innebærer denne femtiden. Hadde du satt  kr  1<span style="color: blue;"> ,</span>50<span style="color: blue;"> </span>i banken, eller i en risikofri plassering  som en garantert statsobligasjon, ville du hvert år motta renter du kan disponere fritt, og du kan ta ut pengene dine til forbruk eller investering i et annet formål som har større nytte for deg, for eksempel veier, sykehus, forskning etc.</p>
<p>Kristin Halvorsen har betalt mer enn hva krona er verd<span style="color: blue;"> </span>og<span style="color: blue;"> </span>hun kan ikke disponere den, og hun får ikke renter som gir avkastning på investeringen.  Så sier Kristin Halvorsen at &#8220;jeg er langsiktig&#8221;, hva betyr det? At siden jeg ikke kan disponere pengene nå,  må jeg vente.  Men hva med avkastningen? Hun har betalt en pris for en aksje som er verd mindre pga lavere fremtidig inntjening på selskapet, det betyr bare at hun i realiteten nå kanskje har betalt 1 krone og 50 øre for noe som nå er priset til 50 øre.  I perioden hvor det ikke blir utbetalt utbytte, eller meget lavt utbytte, er avkastningen dårlig og ingen vil kjøpe noe som ikke gir avkastning, i hvert fall ikke betale mer enn en pris som innebærer at avkastningen gir en dårligere  avkastning som  svarer til å sette penger i banken pluss en fornuftig risikopremie.</p>
<p>Her er noe av læringen etter 1929 som synes glemt i dag. Enhver bedrift organiserer driften slik at de får inntekter som dekker utgifter, og etter at myndighetene har tatt sitt, betaler utbytte til aksjeeierne.  Beregningen av hvor mye en bedrift er verd  har derfor betydelig risiko som er relatert til at inntekter vil variere, salg kan øke eller reduseres, valutakurser endres, råvarepriser og lønninger vil variere i det som er prognoseperioden som legges til grunn for å beregne selskapsverdien.  I virkeligheten har hver eneste av en bedrifts inntekter og kostnadsarter variasjon over tid. Denne variasjonen utrykker risikoen når man beregner selskapsverdien.  Det betyr at når du tar hensyn til alle inntekts- og kostnadsarter og ser hvor mye de enkeltvis kan variere, for eksempel dollarkurs fra NOK 4,90 til 9,50 osv. vil du ikke bare ha en (1) beregnet selskapsverdi, men mange verdier på en sannsynlighetsfordeling som har en forventingsverdi.  Fordi du varierer tallverdiene litte grann for hver eneste beregning du gjør av selskapsverdien.  Når du har beregnet selskapsverdien hundrevis av ganger får du et realistisk bilde av hvor mye verdien kan variere, du har beregnet risikoen og setter disse enkeltverdiene sammen i forhold til hvor ofte de fremkommer. Du får da en graf, helningen på kurven sier noe om risikoen.  Hvis du betaler en aksjepris som er høyere enn forventingsverdien , det mest sannsynlige, reduseres samtidig sannsynligheten for at du noen gang vil få en lønnsom investering. Du gambler da på at noe som skjer i fremtiden skal øke bedriftens evne til å betale mer utbytte, det skjer sjelden. Warren Buffet og mange andre begynte derfor etter 1929 og si at; skal vi kjøpe aksjer, kjøper vi til en pris som er lavere enn forventingsverdien. Vi kjøper ikke en krone for en krone, men 50 øre. Da øker sannsynligheten for at du både får avkastning som gir bedre renter enn å ha penger i banken, og at du får solgt aksjen til en pris som er høyere enn hva du selv ga for den.</p>
<p>Oljefondet har kjøpt mange aksjer til en høy pris. En pris som kanskje er  over forventingsverdien.  I mange tilfeller har de også sikkert ikke noen kunnskap om hva forventingsverdien har vært, de har bare betalt.   Denne høye prisen gjør at kravet til avkastning fra bedriften øker betydelig om de noen gang skal komme i en situasjon hvor de klarer å utbetale utbytte som forrenter aksjeprisen oljefondet betalte. I tillegg er det også liten sannsynlighet for at noen vil betale mer for aksjen enn f.eks. oljefondet betalte.  Da er pengene i realiteten tapt. Fordi selger du, får du tap, og utbytte vil aldri gi en rente som er høyere enn hva du ville fått i banken.</p>
<p>Så når du ikke kan disponere pengene fritt  (fordi du har et urealisert tap)<span style="color: blue;"> </span>og du heller ikke får avkastning som gir en rente på aksjene som er positiv<span id="ms__id200" style="color: blue;">, </span>er nok pengene tapt, uansett hvor lenge du venter med å innrømme det.</p>
<p>Et tips kan være å gjøre som de erfarne fra 1929 og det er å ikke betale mer for en aksje enn hva som er forventningsverdien med mindre du som investor har anledning til å hente ut synergier. Et annet er å be om å få opplyst forventingsverdien og se på hvilke sannsynlighetsfordelinger som er lagt til grunn for de enkelte kostnads- og inntektstarter. Da vil du se hvilken risiko investeringen representerer.</p>
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		<title>Uncertainty and WACC</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=14</link>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 19 Mar 2009 23:17:55 +0000</pubDate>
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The correct procedure to calculate the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is to solve the simultaneous equations giving the unique WACC for every period in the forecast period. This is not often done due to the complexity, but ValueSim has this as a standard. For more information please download the WACC article.







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<td width="386" valign="top">The correct procedure to calculate the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is to solve the simultaneous equations giving the unique WACC for every period in the forecast period. This is not often done due to the complexity, but ValueSim has this as a standard. For more information please download the <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20070104072216/http://www.valuesim.no/downloads/WACC.pdf" target="_blank">WACC article</a>.</p>
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		<title>The Value of Quality Management</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=8</link>
		<comments>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=8#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 19 Mar 2009 21:55:13 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[Warret Buffett is recognized being one of the worlds most successful investor. What are the key issues when deciding to invest? Some of the most relevant factors are written here. If you want the source himself, please go to Warren Buffett here.
Managing the Buffett way
By Stuart Crainer
The naive figure who utters profound truths holds a perennial and universal appeal. The naïf who succeeds and mysteriously makes sense of an alien environment is the subject of movie after movie &#8211; from Peter Sellers&#8217; Being There to Tom Hanks&#8217; Big.
Something of the ...]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Warret Buffett is recognized being one of the worlds most successful investor. What are the key issues when deciding to invest? Some of the most relevant factors are written here. If you want the source himself, please go to Warren Buffett <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20070806181359/http://www.berkshirehathaway.com/" target="_blank">here.</a><span id="more-8"></span></p>
<h2><strong>Managing the Buffett way</strong><br />
By Stuart Crainer</h2>
<p>The naive figure who utters profound truths holds a perennial and universal appeal. The naïf who succeeds and mysteriously makes sense of an alien environment is the subject of movie after movie &#8211; from Peter Sellers&#8217; Being There to Tom Hanks&#8217; Big.</p>
<p>Something of the same phenomenon can be seen in the business world. Ben and Jerry fascinate because they appear so blithely straightforward and enthusiastic. Sir Richard Branson remains immune to criticism despite Virgin’s occasional misadventures. He is an engaging innocent, an enthusiast in a woolly jumper. There is a sense that these people are from a different time, an era of decency and simple pleasures. They are idiosyncratic throwbacks to bygone ways of doing business, cavaliers in an age of roundheads.</p>
<p>The investor Warren Buffett is part of this phenomenon. He successfully ignored the new economy bubble and emerged to tell a tale of even greater riches. The Sage of Omaha has been enormously successful in a field where competition is ruthless. As you’d expect, Buffett&#8217;s achievement has been examined from every angle. Yet, if emulation is a measure of understanding, it appears little understood.</p>
<p>Buffett, a man of resolutely simple tastes, someone who oozes old-fashioned decency from every pore, stands above the maelstrom of analysts, commentators, and private investors. As he has become more famous and his investment company Berkshire Hathaway ever more successful, Buffett&#8217;s public utterances and writings have become more playful.</p>
<p>As happens in Wall Street all too often, what the wise do in the beginning, fools do in the end,” he wrote in 1989. This was followed in 1990 by: “Lethargy bordering on sloth remains the cornerstone of our investment style”. Of all the markets he has conquered, the one in homespun wisdom may be his surprising legacy.</p>
<p>Investors buy books on the great man in their millions (there is a book called Buffettology though the most useful is The Essays of Warren Buffett) and pore through them in search of a formulaic approach to investing. They will, of course, be disappointed. It is not that Buffett does not have a formula. He does.</p>
<p>Buffett advocates “focused investing”. When gauging the wisdom of an investment, investors should look at five features:</p>
<ol>
<li>The certainty with which the long-term economic characteristics of the business can be evaluated.</li>
<li>The certainty with which management can be evaluated, both as to its ability to realize the full potential of the business and to wisely employ its cash flows.</li>
<li>The certainty with which management can be counted on to channel the reward from the business to the shareholders rather than to itself.</li>
<li>The purchase price of the business.</li>
<li>The levels of taxation and inflation that will be experienced and that will determine the degree by which an investor&#8217;s purchasing-power return is reduced from his gross return.</li>
</ol>
<p>Buffett admits that many will find such criteria “unbearably fuzzy”. This is only partly the case. Analysis can lead to conclusions about the long-term economic prospects of a business. Analysis can also establish what is a reasonable purchase price and help predict future macroeconomic conditions likely to impact on the investment. Where analysis falls down and things do begin to become fuzzy is in assessing the incumbent management.</p>
<p>Time and time again in his wry annual letters to shareholders, Buffett returns to the issue of sound management. Given the right conditions, good managers produce good companies. Never invest in badly managed companies.</p>
<p>The trouble, it seems, is that there are a great many poor managers. &#8220;The supreme irony of business management is that it is far easier for an inadequate CEO to keep his job than it is for an inadequate subordinate,&#8221; lamented Buffet in 1988, going on to criticize the comfortable conspiracies of too many boardrooms. “At board meetings, criticism of the CEO&#8217;s performance is often viewed as the social equivalent of belching.”</p>
<p>Buffett believes that executives should think and behave as owners of their businesses. He is critical, therefore, of the “indiscriminate use” of stock options for senior executives. “Managers actually apply a double standard to options,” Buffet writes. “Nowhere in the business world are 10-year, fixed-price options on all or a portion of a business granted to outsiders. Ten months, in fact, would be regarded as extreme.”</p>
<p>Such long-term options, argues Buffet, “ignore the fact that retained earnings automatically build value and, second, ignore the carrying cost of capital”.</p>
<p>Buffett is a slow-moving minimalist in an age of hyperactive behemoths. In the Berkshire Hathaway boardroom, belches are welcomed.</p>
<p>Copyright © 2000 FT Knowledge Limited<a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20070806181359/http://www.valuesim.no/nyheter/artikkel5.html#anchor"><img src="http://web.archive.org/web/20070806181359/http://www.valuesim.no/images/topp.gif" border="0" alt="" width="30" height="9" /></a></p>
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		<title>The Probability of Gain and Loss</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=6</link>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 19 Mar 2009 21:48:21 +0000</pubDate>
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Every item written into a firm’s profit and loss account and its balance sheet is a stochastic variable with a probability distribution derived from probability distributions for each factor of production. Using this approach we are able to derive a probability distribution for any measure used in valuing companies and in evaluating strategic investment decisions. Indeed, using this evaluation approach we are able to calculate expected gain, loss and their probability when investing in a company where the capitalized value (price) is known.For a more closer study, please download Corporate ...]]></description>
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<td>Every item written into a firm’s profit and loss account and its balance sheet is a stochastic variable with a probability distribution derived from probability distributions for each factor of production. Using this approach we are able to derive a probability distribution for any measure used in valuing companies and in evaluating strategic investment decisions. Indeed, using this evaluation approach we are able to calculate expected gain, loss and their probability when investing in a company where the capitalized value (price) is known.<span id="more-6"></span>For a more closer study, please download <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071228143058/http://www.valuesim.no/kontakt.html" target="_blank">Corporate Risk Analysis</a></p>
<p><strong>The Probability Distribution for the Value of Equity</strong></p>
<p>The simulation creates frequency and cumulative probability distributions as shown in the figure below.</td>
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<td><img src="http://web.archive.org/web/20071228143058/http://www.valuesim.no/images/value_distr.jpg" border="0" alt="" width="500" height="342" /></td>
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<td><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Figure: Frequency and Cumulative Probability Distribution of Equity by Economic Profit.</span>We can use the information contained in the figure to calculate the risk of investing in the company for different levels of the company’s market capitalization. The expected value of the company is 1.452 read from the intersection between probability curve and a line drawn from the 50% probability point on the 2nd Y-axis.</td>
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<td><strong>The Probability Distribution for Gain and Loss<br />
</strong>The shape of the probability curve provides concise information concerning uncertainty in calculating expected values of equity. Uncertainty is reduced the steeper the probability curve, whereas the flatter the curve so uncertainty is more evident. The figures below depicts the value of this type of information enabling calculation of expected gains or losses from investments in a company for differing levels of market capitalization.</td>
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<td><img src="http://web.archive.org/web/20071228143058/http://www.valuesim.no/images/gain.jpg" border="0" alt="" width="500" height="342" /></td>
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<td><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Figure: Expected Gain from Investment<br />
</span>We have calculated expected Gain or Loss as the difference between expected values of equity and the market capitalization; the ‘S’ curve in the graph shows this. The X-axis gives different levels of market capitalization; the 1st Y-axis (left) gives the expected gain (loss) and the 2nd y-axis the probability. Drawing a line from the 50% probability point to the probability curve and down to the X-axis point to the position where the expected gain (loss) is zero. At this point there is a 50/50 chance of realising or loosing money through investing in the company capitalized at 1,452, which is exactly the expected value of the company’s equity.To the left of this point is the investment area. The green lines indicate a situation where the company is capitalized at 1,140 indicating an expected gain of 312 with a probability of 80% (100%-20%).</p>
<p>The figure below describes a situation where a company is capitalized above the expected value.</td>
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<td><img src="http://web.archive.org/web/20071228143058/http://www.valuesim.no/images/loss.jpg" border="0" alt="" width="500" height="342" /></td>
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<td><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Figure: Expected Loss from Investment<br />
</span>To the right is the speculative area where an industrial investor, with perhaps synergistic possibilities, could reasonably argue a valid case when paying a price higher than expected value. The red line in figure 21 indicates a situation where the company is capitalized at 1,960 – giving a loss of 498 with 96% probability.To a financial investor it is obviously the left part – the investment area – that is of interest. It is this area that expected gain is higher than expected loss.</p>
<p>See also <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071228143058/http://www.valuesim.no/nyheter/verdi_pris.html" target="_blank">Risk, Value and Price</a></td>
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		<title>Risk and Monte Carlo Simulation</title>
		<link>http://www.valuesim.no/?p=3</link>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 19 Mar 2009 21:42:06 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>admin</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Articles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Risk Analysis]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Risk, when does it occurs? Whenever the outcome of a situation is not 0 or 1 you have uncertainty. Investment decisions taken under these circumstances involve a probability for an outcome that will differ from your estimated target. Decisions taken under uncertainty are a reality and a constraint manager's face. In order to reduce the risk (probability of gain/loss) you have basically two ways of doing it, reduce the exposure or try to reduce the uncertainty by gathering more information.]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Risk, when does it occurs? Whenever the outcome of a situation is not 0 or 1 you have uncertainty. Investment decisions taken under these circumstances involve a probability for an outcome that will differ from your estimated target. Decisions taken under uncertainty are a reality and a constraint manager&#8217;s face. In order to reduce the risk (probability of gain/loss) you have basically two ways of doing it, reduce the exposure or try to reduce the uncertainty by gathering more information.</p>
<p>Risk &#8211; randomness with knowable probabilities.<br />
Uncertainty &#8211; randomness with unknowable probabilites.</p>
<p>The problem with information is very often the lack of it due to cost and time factors. A major point in this context is that uncertainty can be reduced but risk can be calculated.</p>
<p>We will illustrate this by describing a typical investment decision and look into the decisions and how they can be enhanced by taking advantage of calculating the risk by using <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071230181611/http://www.contingencyanalysis.com/glossarymontecarlosimulation.htm" target="_blank">Monte Carlo Simulation</a>. This is a method especially developed to handle situations with uncertainty and to calculate the risk involved. The logic is fairly simple and the applications are numerous.</p>
<p>Most business concepts involve various proportions of income, costs and investments. We will in the following use the philosophy that every decisions shall be taken in order to maximize shareholder value, corporate competitiveness and customer satisfaction.</p>
<p>We have here split the decision process into various steps in order illustrate actually how easy it is to do it. By clicking on each theme you will see how we have given a flavor on how the problem can be solved.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071230181611/http://www.valuesim.no/risk/the_challenge.html">The Challenge</a></li>
<li><a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071230181611/http://www.valuesim.no/risk/uncertainty.html">Uncertainty &#8211; Lack of Information</a></li>
<li><a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071230181611/http://www.valuesim.no/risk/risk_definition.html">Risk &#8211; Exposure to Uncertainty</a></li>
<li><a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071230181611/http://www.valuesim.no/risk/decision.html">Decision among the alternatives &#8211; Criteria&#8217;s </a></li>
</ul>
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